Grounding Circulations of the Global in China and Angola: Some Possibilities for the Present and the Future

How can Angola’s oil-driven urban regions deepen our understanding of urban environmental policy? This question was a focal point of discussion during the international webinar “Grounding Circulations of the Global in China and Angola,” held on January 19, 2024. Organized by the Orfalea Center for Global & International Studies in collaboration with the Grounding and Worlding Urban Infrastructures Project (GROWL), the event brought together experts to explore these critical global issues: Henrik Ernstson, Principal Investigator of the GROWL Project and a human geographer and political ecologist from KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden; Ricardo Cardoso, an urban planning scholar from The Ohio State University; and Jia-Ching Chen, an expert in urban development and environmental studies from the University of California, Santa Barbara.

The presentations explored Angola’s rapid urban transformations, driven by global economic forces, particularly its ties to China and the influence of its oil economy. Using case studies, the speakers examined broader themes of urban development, infrastructure, and the politics of space. The discussion introduced the concept of "blocos urbanism," emphasizing the role of cement blocks in Luanda’s expansion and the modular approach to urban development shaped by global exchanges between China and Angola. It also addressed the dualism in Luanda's urban landscape, characterized by spatial segregation and infrastructural inequalities. Another key focus was the often-overlooked labor of domestic workers in Kilamba’s housing development and the need for better communication between companies and local communities, drawing from the lived experiences and insights of local workers. The conversation further delved into the political economy of construction and the dynamic interactions between state policies and urbanization. These topics will be discussed in more detail below.

Speakers (from left to right): Henrik Ernstson, Ricardo Cardoso, Jia-Ching Chen

“Blocos Urbanism” and Luanda’s Rapid Expansion

In his presentation titled “Blocos Urbanism: Capitalism and Modularity in the Making of Contemporary Luanda,” Ricardo Cardoso explained the crucial role of cement blocks – locally known as “blocos” – in Luanda’s rapid urban transformation. These cement blocks have become the core building material for much of the city’s self-constructed housing. Produced in semi-industrial factories, many of which are owned by Chinese entrepreneurs, these standardized blocks represent a modular approach to urban development in Luanda’s peripheries. Unlike other African cities where improvised materials are commonly used, Luanda’s expansion is characterized by the widespread use of these prefabricated cement blocks, making them essential to its rapid expansion.

Ricardo Cardoso referred to this phenomenon as “blocos urbanism,” emphasizing the modular nature of Luanda’s development. He suggested that the city’s future is closely tied to these standardized building practices. “Whether through the cement blocks that shape its peripheries or the city blocks of planned developments like Kilamba, Luanda’s growth highlights the complex interplay between global forces and local realities in shaping urban landscapes across Africa,” Cardoso said.

Figure 1. Cement block manufacturing site, showing the town of Zango in the background. 

Photo by Tiffany Liu, October 2019.

The scholar highlighted Luanda’s transformation from a small city of about half a million people at the time of Angola’s independence in 1975 to a sprawling metropolis with over three million inhabitants by the early 2000s. This expansion was largely unplanned until after the Civil War ended in 2002, when oil revenues fueled significant development projects. Among these was the “Luanda Sul program,” which marked the emergence of gated communities for the elite, reflecting a broader trend of spatial segregation. As Luanda expanded, new infrastructure projects reshaped the city, with major initiatives like the construction of expressways, industrial zones, and housing projects. Particularly notable was the New Centralities project, a nationwide effort that involved Chinese construction companies in building vast new urban areas such as Kilamba – a large residential city built from scratch. These developments highlighted the strong economic ties between Angola and China, as well as the role of oil wealth in shaping the city's physical and social landscape.

This presentation centered on Progreso, a peri-urban neighborhood near Kilamba, illustrating the contrasts and connections between Luanda’s elite gated communities and its expanding peripheries. Progreso, a low-density, self-constructed neighborhood, reflects the incremental and often informal nature of urbanization in African cities. Cardoso described how Progreso rapidly transitioned from farmland to a densely populated area within a decade, driven by a modular, block-by-block approach to growth. He concluded by emphasizing the symbolic and material divides in Luanda’s urban landscape, particularly the road separating Progreso from Kilamba. This road not only acts as a physical boundary but also symbolizes the stark contrasts between the planned, modern infrastructure of Kilamba and the organic, self-built development of neighborhoods like Progreso. In many ways, the road epitomizes the dualities that exist in many African cities: between wealth and poverty, planning and improvisation, formal and informal development. 

If you would like to explore the topic further, we recommend reading the article “Blocos Urbanism: Capitalism and Modularity in the Construction of Contemporary Luanda,” authored by our three speakers. You can find it in the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research by clicking HERE.

The Impact of Gender and Class on Kilamba’s Housing Development

Henrik Ernstson’s presentation, titled “The Invisible Labor of the ‘New Angola’: Social Reproduction of Master Plans and Kilamba’s Domestic Workers,” explored the often-overlooked contributions of domestic workers in Kilamba, a major housing development in Luanda. Funded by Angola’s oil revenues and built to address housing shortages while symbolizing progress after the civil war, Kilamba features 20,000 apartments constructed by a Chinese state-owned company. However, while the development boasts an impressive scale and is marketed as a beacon of modernity, it primarily serves higher-income residents. The essential labor of domestic workers, crucial for maintaining these homes, remains largely invisible and undervalued.

Figure 2. Periphery path to Kilamba. Photo by Jia-Ching Chen (2018).

This talk was based on research Henrik Ernstson conducted together with Wangui Kimari, a scholar at the African Centre for Cities at the University of Cape Town. “Through interviews and observations, we found that Kilamba’s glossy image contrasts sharply with the harsh realities of those who sustain it. The development, initially designed to address housing shortages, has primarily benefited the middle class, excluding many low-income residents,” he said. While Kilamba is promoted as a symbol of modern urban development, it reinforces deep gender and class inequalities. Domestic workers, predominantly women, perform essential labor in maintaining these apartments, yet their work remains undervalued and precarious. By focusing on the gendered labor that underpins Kilamba’s infrastructure, their study critiques the broader narrative of development in Angola and underscores the need for more inclusive urban planning. Domestic workers’ experiences offer a critical perspective on the social and economic inequalities embedded in large-scale development projects like Kilamba. 

The article by Ernstson & Kimari, published in the Urban Geography Journal (Volume 44, Issue 9, 2023), can be found HERE.

Urban Development and State Shifts

In his presentation “Elliptical Orbits: Satellite City Construction as Itinerary of the State,” Jia-Ching Chen explored the complexities of state-led development, arguing that the narrative of state dominance often overlooks how urban development projects themselves transform state functions. Chen highlights that the interaction between urbanizing residents, capital resources, and developmental goals evolves in ways that reshape state capacities and practices. “Our research reveals that development dynamics are influenced by friction, resistance, and negotiation, which challenge the notion of a monolithic state control,” Chen said. His analysis, framed within the context of transnational urbanization, delves into how official development initiatives intersect with local realities. His examination includes the impact of land dispossession and commodification in both China and Angola, as well as the political economy of construction and finance. The volatility of global commodity markets, particularly oil, has significantly influenced the pace and nature of urban development, providing a more nuanced understanding of state practices and their effects.

Figure 3. A “welcome” billboard at the entrance of Kilamba depicting its landscape. 

Photo by Jia-Ching Chen (2018).

Jia-Ching Chen argued that the narrative of a Chinese model transplanted onto Angolan soil is oversimplified. He emphasized that any successful model must address the socio-economic realities and needs of local populations, especially those engaged in construction and maintenance. Chen described the gaps and omissions in master planning as “ellipses,” highlighting the incomplete and often problematic aspects of large-scale urban development. These ellipses represent more than just absences; they are active spaces where local actors navigate and adapt to the shifting landscape. His research suggests that the interplay of state practices, economic fluctuations, and local responses create a dynamic and complex picture of urban transformation. The state’s role is not just one of top-down control but one of adaptation and negotiation in response to both the failures and successes of development projects. This perspective calls for relational and multi-sided research approaches to better understand the entangled processes of urbanization and state practice.

Ultimately, Jia-Ching Chen underscored the importance of examining the elliptical paths and dynamic interactions between state-led planning, local realities, and global economic forces. This approach offers a richer understanding of how new urban projects shape and are shaped by the broader political and economic context in which they are embedded.

➔ To view the documentary “Blocos Urbanism” produced by the GROWL Project, CLICK HERE. 

➔ To view the webinar video, click the video below: